In modern parlance, a "perfume" is made of essential oils in an alcohol base. Distillation of pure alcohol was unknown in pharaonic times;
"perfume" or "cologne" as such did not exist in ancient Egypt. Instead, oils and fats were impregnated with the essences of various plants. It is almost impossible to tell from what substances these extracts were made, since the essential oils have not survived in extant samples of unguents. Scholars can only reconstruct the ingredients from images in tombs, recipes for scent from the Greco-Roman period, and knowledge of the raw materials available to pharaonic perfumers.
The plants used to scent pharaonic perfumed oils most likely included the water lily (lotus) and the flowers of the henna plant. Two varieties of water lily, (Nymphaea caeru-lea and N. lotus), are denoted (inaccurately) by Egyptologists with the single term "lotus." Nymphaea was a supremely important plant for the ancient Egyptians, used as decorative element, food, and medicine, and replete with religious symbolism. Its scent was supposedly that of the sweat of the gods; its opening and closing mimicked the pattern of life and rebirth. It has been suggested that plant's essence, dissolved in wine, was used as an intoxicant.
The flowers of the henna plant (Lawsonia inennis) also have a strong scent, which would have been used in perfumes, as might other fragrant flowers such as the Madonna lily (Lilium candidum). Representations of perfume-making from the Late period show a plant resembling the Madonna lily being picked and pressed to extract its essence.
Other scented substances—cedar wood, cinnamon bark, resins, herbs (such as thyme), and spices (such as coriander)—would have been used in the creation of unguents and perfumes. The resins in use no doubt included myrrh and frankincense, as well as ladanum or galbanum. Ladanum is derived from the leaves and branches of shrubs of the genus Cistus, which grow in many locations around the Mediterranean. Galbanum, derived from Ferula (a large herb), would have been imported from Persia, possibly by the time of the New Kingdom.
Both the leaves and the bark of the various types of cinnamon tree (Cinnamomum zeylanicum, C. camphora, or C. cassia) may have been utilized in the preparation of unguents and perfumes, certainly by the Roman period, as the use of the term kinamomon in Coptic attests. During the Roman Empire, an extremely expensive scent called malabathron, made with cinnamon, was highly prized. The type of cinnamon bark used was probably C. wylanicum, which is not native to Egypt but to Ceylon.
Perfume could be created by crushing the aromatic elements (seeds, bark, flowers, leaves, and so on) and infusing oil or fat with them. Three techniques seem to have been in use: enfleurage, in which layers of fat are saturated with perfume from flowers, which would be replaced from time to time; maceration, in which flowers or other plant materials are dipped into fats or oils heated to a temperature of about 65°C, and the mixture then sieved and allowed to cool; and expressing the perfume directly from flowers or fruit. Many types of oils derived from nuts and seeds were available for use as the base of perfumes and unguents, including baianos oil, linseed oil, olive oil, sesame oil, almond oil, and ben oil. Ben oil was derived from the horseradish tree (Moringa oleifera). Castor oil would also have been available, but as it has a strong smell, is unlikely to have been used. Olive oil and almond oil would have been among the most expensive since, although they can grow in Egypt, these trees were not native to the Nile Valley and would have required special cultivation. Almond oil has a particularly sweet smell which would have made it desirable as a base for scent or makeup.
With all of these varying types of vegetable oils available, it is interesting to note that of the thirty-five vases of perfumes found in the tomb of Tutankhamun, the only one that had not been emptied was found to contain an unguent based on animal grease. The animal from which the fat came has not been determined. In medical texts from ancient Egypt, however, the fat of geese and the tallow of oxen are most often specified as a base for remedies applied externally. The fat of ducks, sheep, and goats, less expensive and thus more widely available, might also have been used. In one analyzed specimen of unguent, the fatty matter was mixed with another substance, which was tentatively identified as a balsam or resin (such as myrrh). This might have been included to add fragrance or to fix the scent already mixed. A few containers of perfumes from the tomb contained only resin, a Middle Kingdom sample also contained tiny splinters of wood. The latter were almost certainly from a fragrant tree such as cedar.
The sophistication of pharaonic perfumers in creating fragrances should not be underestimated. Both Pliny the Elder and Athenaeus, in fact, claim that Egyptian fragrance was the best in the world, because its scents were the longest lasting and it was the country best suited to the production of perfume (presumably owing to the great number of ingredients available there). A number of ancient authors, such as Pliny, Dioscorides, and Theophrastus, give recipes for perfumes which include several ingredients. For example, a famous perfume from Mendes, one of several mentioned by classical authors, contained ba-lanos oil, cassia, myrrh, and aromatic resins. In his book Concerning Odours, Theophrastus mentions a scent made from cinnamon and myrrh mixed with other, unnamed substances.
One item of pharaonic perfumery that has created discussion among scholars is the cones which appear on the heads of banqueters and others in festive garb during the New Kingdom. These cones are usually believed to have been made of scented fat, probably ox tallow impregnated with myrrh, although there has been a recent suggestion that they were made of beeswax. Egyptologists have noted that a similar custom survived among certain Bedouin tribes until the present century, and fat was worn as a hairdressing by Nubian tribes. Egyptologist Rita Freed has suggested that the custom originated as a means of counteracting the drying effect of the sun on hair. Many unguents and oils were made from expensive or rare substances. Thus, in ancient Egypt most unguents and perfumes would have been easily available only to the rich. The importance of scent to personal hygiene and wellbeing, however, was universal. Unguents and scented oils were an essential part of the daily toilette for all classes throughout Egyptian histoi-y because oils and unguents were essential to protect and condition the skin in the dry climate. In fact, the striking workmen of Deir el-Medina listed body oil as one of their demands. Both sexes were advised to rub pellets of ground carob (or juniper) into the skin to act as a deodorant.
Recent Pages:
· Lake Moeris (Lake Karun)
· Wadi Natrun in Ancient Egypt
· The Western Desert in Ancient Egypt
· Lake Mariotis in Ancient Egypt
· Egyptian hieroglyph and Society
· Ancient Egypt videos
· Pan-Grave People and Culture
· Pepinakht Heqaib
· Personal Hygiene in Ancient Egypt
"perfume" or "cologne" as such did not exist in ancient Egypt. Instead, oils and fats were impregnated with the essences of various plants. It is almost impossible to tell from what substances these extracts were made, since the essential oils have not survived in extant samples of unguents. Scholars can only reconstruct the ingredients from images in tombs, recipes for scent from the Greco-Roman period, and knowledge of the raw materials available to pharaonic perfumers.
The plants used to scent pharaonic perfumed oils most likely included the water lily (lotus) and the flowers of the henna plant. Two varieties of water lily, (Nymphaea caeru-lea and N. lotus), are denoted (inaccurately) by Egyptologists with the single term "lotus." Nymphaea was a supremely important plant for the ancient Egyptians, used as decorative element, food, and medicine, and replete with religious symbolism. Its scent was supposedly that of the sweat of the gods; its opening and closing mimicked the pattern of life and rebirth. It has been suggested that plant's essence, dissolved in wine, was used as an intoxicant.
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| Egyptian scene depicting the preparation of lily perfume, 4th century BC |
Other scented substances—cedar wood, cinnamon bark, resins, herbs (such as thyme), and spices (such as coriander)—would have been used in the creation of unguents and perfumes. The resins in use no doubt included myrrh and frankincense, as well as ladanum or galbanum. Ladanum is derived from the leaves and branches of shrubs of the genus Cistus, which grow in many locations around the Mediterranean. Galbanum, derived from Ferula (a large herb), would have been imported from Persia, possibly by the time of the New Kingdom.
Both the leaves and the bark of the various types of cinnamon tree (Cinnamomum zeylanicum, C. camphora, or C. cassia) may have been utilized in the preparation of unguents and perfumes, certainly by the Roman period, as the use of the term kinamomon in Coptic attests. During the Roman Empire, an extremely expensive scent called malabathron, made with cinnamon, was highly prized. The type of cinnamon bark used was probably C. wylanicum, which is not native to Egypt but to Ceylon.
Perfume could be created by crushing the aromatic elements (seeds, bark, flowers, leaves, and so on) and infusing oil or fat with them. Three techniques seem to have been in use: enfleurage, in which layers of fat are saturated with perfume from flowers, which would be replaced from time to time; maceration, in which flowers or other plant materials are dipped into fats or oils heated to a temperature of about 65°C, and the mixture then sieved and allowed to cool; and expressing the perfume directly from flowers or fruit. Many types of oils derived from nuts and seeds were available for use as the base of perfumes and unguents, including baianos oil, linseed oil, olive oil, sesame oil, almond oil, and ben oil. Ben oil was derived from the horseradish tree (Moringa oleifera). Castor oil would also have been available, but as it has a strong smell, is unlikely to have been used. Olive oil and almond oil would have been among the most expensive since, although they can grow in Egypt, these trees were not native to the Nile Valley and would have required special cultivation. Almond oil has a particularly sweet smell which would have made it desirable as a base for scent or makeup.
With all of these varying types of vegetable oils available, it is interesting to note that of the thirty-five vases of perfumes found in the tomb of Tutankhamun, the only one that had not been emptied was found to contain an unguent based on animal grease. The animal from which the fat came has not been determined. In medical texts from ancient Egypt, however, the fat of geese and the tallow of oxen are most often specified as a base for remedies applied externally. The fat of ducks, sheep, and goats, less expensive and thus more widely available, might also have been used. In one analyzed specimen of unguent, the fatty matter was mixed with another substance, which was tentatively identified as a balsam or resin (such as myrrh). This might have been included to add fragrance or to fix the scent already mixed. A few containers of perfumes from the tomb contained only resin, a Middle Kingdom sample also contained tiny splinters of wood. The latter were almost certainly from a fragrant tree such as cedar.
The sophistication of pharaonic perfumers in creating fragrances should not be underestimated. Both Pliny the Elder and Athenaeus, in fact, claim that Egyptian fragrance was the best in the world, because its scents were the longest lasting and it was the country best suited to the production of perfume (presumably owing to the great number of ingredients available there). A number of ancient authors, such as Pliny, Dioscorides, and Theophrastus, give recipes for perfumes which include several ingredients. For example, a famous perfume from Mendes, one of several mentioned by classical authors, contained ba-lanos oil, cassia, myrrh, and aromatic resins. In his book Concerning Odours, Theophrastus mentions a scent made from cinnamon and myrrh mixed with other, unnamed substances.
One item of pharaonic perfumery that has created discussion among scholars is the cones which appear on the heads of banqueters and others in festive garb during the New Kingdom. These cones are usually believed to have been made of scented fat, probably ox tallow impregnated with myrrh, although there has been a recent suggestion that they were made of beeswax. Egyptologists have noted that a similar custom survived among certain Bedouin tribes until the present century, and fat was worn as a hairdressing by Nubian tribes. Egyptologist Rita Freed has suggested that the custom originated as a means of counteracting the drying effect of the sun on hair. Many unguents and oils were made from expensive or rare substances. Thus, in ancient Egypt most unguents and perfumes would have been easily available only to the rich. The importance of scent to personal hygiene and wellbeing, however, was universal. Unguents and scented oils were an essential part of the daily toilette for all classes throughout Egyptian histoi-y because oils and unguents were essential to protect and condition the skin in the dry climate. In fact, the striking workmen of Deir el-Medina listed body oil as one of their demands. Both sexes were advised to rub pellets of ground carob (or juniper) into the skin to act as a deodorant.
Recent Pages:
· Lake Moeris (Lake Karun)
· Wadi Natrun in Ancient Egypt
· The Western Desert in Ancient Egypt
· Lake Mariotis in Ancient Egypt
· Egyptian hieroglyph and Society
· Ancient Egypt videos
· Pan-Grave People and Culture
· Pepinakht Heqaib
· Personal Hygiene in Ancient Egypt