Calcite

Alabaster perfume jars from
the tomb of Tutankhamun,
(d. 1323 BC)

Egyptologists today correctly use the term calcite when  referring to lithic materials that were historically called travertine,  alabaster,  Egyptian  alabaster,  or  Oriental  alabaster.  Geologically, calcite is  a  mineral  composed  of  hexagonal  crystals  of  calcium  carbonate (CaCO,). As used by geologists, the term alabaster refers  to  a  fine-grained,  massive  variety  of  rock  gypsum,  consisting  largely  of the  mineral  gypsum  (hydrous calcium  sulfate,  CaSO,,  •  2H;0),  which  is  a  secondary  mineral  formed  by  the  hydration  of  anhydrite (CaSC^) in a zone of weathering. Ironically, alabastrites  was the original, ancient Greek and Latin name used for "Egyptian  travertine" (a limestone), but that had been forgotten when alabaster  acquired  its  modem  definition  in  the  1500s.  Another  term  sometimes used for Egyptian travertine is calcite-alabaster, which  is  both  inappropriate  and  self-contradictory.  Many Egyptologists now call travertine by the term calcite, to avoid confusion with the  well-known  and  very  different-looking  Italian  travertine,  from  Tivoli, Italy (the Romans' tivertino, the Latin word for "travertine").  From the Old Kingdom onward, the Egyptians called travertine ss,  but during the Old Kingdom it was also occasionally referred to as  biyt.

Egyptian travertine (calcite) occurs in two varieties:  (1) a nonbanded to faintly banded, tan to brownish-yellow, coarse- grained, translucent form; and (2) the strikingly banded form with  interlayering  of  the  first-mentioned  variety  with  a  white,  fine- grained,  opaque  form.  With  prolonged  exposure  to  sunlight,  the  brown  and  yellow  colors  become  white.  An  example  of  this  weathering phenomenon may be seen at the Mosque of Muhammad  Ali (built from 1824 to 1848 CE) in Cairo's Citadel. Both the interior  and  exterior  surfaces  of  this  building  were  clad  with  banded  travertine (calcite), but now the outside surface has become nearly  white whereas the inside surface is still brightly colored.

Travertine  (calcite)  occurs as  fracture-and-cavity  fillings  in  the  limestone deposits that border the Nile Valley between Esna in the  south and Cairo in the north, and nine ancient quarries are known  for this rock. The locations, from south to north, and the dates for  these sites are the following: one site near Wadi Asyut (New Kingdom);  four  sites  near  the  Tell  el-Amama  ruins  at  Hatnub  (Old  Kingdom through Roman period), both in and near Wadi el-Zebeida  (Middle and New Kingdoms), and in Wadi Barshawi (possibly Middle Kingdom); one site at el-Qawatir  near the city of el-Minya (possibly Old through New Kingdoms);  one site in Wadi Umm Argub near the Wadis Muwathil and Sannur  (Late  period);  one  site  in  Wadi  Araba  near  Wadi  Askhar  el-Qibli  (Roman); and one site in Wadi el-Garawi near the city of Helwan  (Old  Kingdom).  Banded  travertine  was  obtained  from  all  those  quarries,  but  the  nonbanded  variety  may  have  come  only  from  Hatnub.  (Hatnub  is  an  ancient  Egyptian  word  meaning  "golden  house," and it may have been applied to that quarry because of the  uniform golden-brown color of its rock.).

As  a  relatively  soft  mineral  (number  3  on  the  Mohs  Hardness  Scale), calcite is easily worked with bronze, copper, and other metal  or stone tools. Its translucency, pleasing colors, and ability to take a  fine polish made it a popular decorative stone in Egypt from early dynastic times onward. Because of the difficulty of obtaining large  pieces, it was mainly employed for small objects, such as statuettes,  shawabtis,  offering  tables,  vases,  bowls,  dishes,  canopic  jars,  and  unguent jars. The unguent jars are the alabastra of classical Greece,  originally  ceramic  and  only  later  carved  from  Egyptian  travertine  (calcite), hence the Greco-Roman name alabastrites for this rock.

Occasionally, calcite was used for paving stones and wall linings  in temples as, for example, in the fourth dynasty valley temple of  Khafre at Giza and the nineteenth dynasty sanctuary in the temple  of Ramesses II  at Abydos, respectively. Although large travertine  (calcite) objects are less common than small ones, many are known;  these  include  sarcophagi,  life-size  and  colossal  statues,  naoi,  embalming  beds,  whole  shrines,  and  other  objects.  One  mode  of  transport for such articles was shown in a detailed painting on the  wall of the twelfth dynasty tomb of Djehutihotpe (or Thuthotpe) at  Bersheh,  where  a  colossal  statue  of  that  nobleman  is  pulled  on  a  sledge by 172 men. Some notable examples of large objects are the  following:

(1) the sarcophagus of King Sety I from his tomb in the Valley of  the Kings at Thebes, now in Sir John Soane's Museum, London; (2)  two  huge  blocks  at  Kamak  temple  in  Luxor—one  a  Late  period  offering stand or kiosk foundation in the Great Court and the other,  possibly, a statue pedestal of uncertain age in the Central Court; (3)  the  colossal  statue  of  the  god  Sobek  with  the  eighteenth  dynasty King Amenhotep III (1382-1344) from Dahamsha, now in the Luxor Museum;  (4)  the  colossal  statue  of  King  Sety  I  from  Karnak  temple,  now  in  the  Egyptian  Museum,  Cairo;  and  (5)  two  bark  shrines,  one  by  the  eighteenth dynasty  kings  Amenhotep I/Thutmose I, and one by the twelfth dynasty king Senwosret I, now  in  the  open-air  museum  at  Karnak  temple.  Numerous  other  examples  may  be  found  in  Alfred  Lucas,  Ancient  Egyptian  Materials and Industries (1962).

Recent Pages:

• Poultry in ancient Egypt
• El Oman
• Moerian
• Tasa-Badari
• Naqada I
• Naqada II

Naqada II

Female figure with bird
traits. Naqada II period,
3500-3400 BCE.
Brooklyn Museum

The most important sites are Hierakonpolis, Naqada, el-Amra, Ma-hasna, Abydos,  Matmar, Gerza, and Minshat Abu Oman Most characteristic of this  phase is the expansion to the north—Naqada II, emerging from the  regions of Naqada I, gradually led to the cultural unification of all  Egypt. The expansion into the northern part of Middle Egypt began  in  Naqada IIC;  the  expansion  into  the  Delta  was  no  later  than  Naqada II Dl. It was primarily a territorial occupation, secondarily  securing  trade  routes  to  the  east.  The  basic  principles  of  the  equipment  of  Egyptian  graves  originated  in  this  period,  with  the  quantity and quality of grave goods reflecting the growing Naqada  cultures  social  stratification.  Separate  necropolises  appeared,  containing exclusively large and rich graves. Graves of the elite are  known from Abydos, Minshat Abu Omar, Diospolis Parva, and Hierakonpolis, testifying about social development and the creation  of centers of authority. Although buildings are not well known from  the  period,  the  models  of  houses  discovered  in  graves  depict  rectangular  brick  buildings,  with  wooden  beams  (lintels)  over  the  doors. New kinds of pottery were made of tempered silt. Decorated  pottery had scenes of birds and animals, triangles symbolizing the  desert, and plants. Others with the portrayal of boats with human  figures  may  point  to  the  existence  of  rituals  that  involve  the  leaders/chiefs  of  clans/tribes.  The  oldest  preserved  Egyptian  wall  painting,  at  Hierakonpolis,  may  therefore  be  confirmed,  since  it  shows  hunting,  triumph,  and  rites  associated  with  boats.  Such  scenes in a grave context suggest the beginnings of the custom of  "taking" symbolic and real events of life into the next world.

Conical mace heads were replaced by pear-shaped mace heads,  which, beginning in mid-Naqada II, become symbols of authority— one  of  the  attributes  of  power  in  Egypt's  royal  iconography.  The  production  of copper  increased  in  importance, as  did  that  of  gold  and  silver.  In  general,  metal  was  sought  after,  probably  a  sign  of  status.  Flint  was  still  the  most  important  material  for  tool  pro- duction,  but  techniques  had  advanced;  in  addition  to  traditional  tools made from flakes, a new technique appeared—production of  long  blades,  later  processed  by  bifacial  retouching  (ripple-flake).  The  number  of  personal  adornments  of  bone,  ivory,  and  semiprecious  stones  increased  markedly,  as  did  bracelets,  rings,  beads,  pendants,  and  amulets.  The  rich  material  culture  indicates  that  groups  of  highly  specialized  craftsmen  existed.  Centers  of  production, such as Hierakonpolis, plus a relatively small number  of workshops distributed products throughout the elite. There, the majority of craftsmen also lived. The cities soon  played  a  central  role  for  the  larger  surrounding  territory.  For  example, Naqada (Eg., Nubt, "city of gold") developed significantly  in this period, based on trade in gold and copper from mines in the  Eastern  Desert.  Changes  in  the  environment  and  in  society  also  transformed Hierakonpolis (Eg., Nekhen), regarded by the ancients  as the capital of the Upper Egyptian state, into a major political and  economic  center.  Naqada is  equidistant  (about  100  kilometers/64  miles in a straight line) from Hierakonpolis and Abydos, and other  important  population  centers  were  grouped  in  their  immediate  vi- cinity.  Strong  economic  centers  of  local  authority  arose  and  trade  was  conducted  in  every  direction.  Contacts  with  the  Levant  are  indicated by small quantities of Palestinian pottery in Upper Egypt,  as  well  as  by the  presence  of  Naqada II  products  in  the  Palestine  region. Contacts with Sumer and Elam are yet debatable. Although  raw materials (obsidian, lapis lazuli), products (cylinder seals), and  certain art motifs (a hero strangling a lion) of Mesopotamia or Elarn  appeared, their presence in Egypt may be the result of a series of  indirect  trade  contacts,  not  from  regular  exchange.  Sources  have  been  identified,  other  than  those  previously  supposed, for  at  least  some of the imported goods. For example, obsidian tools were re- garded  as proof of connections between the Nile Valley and  the Near East, but new analyses have shown beyond a doubt that that  obsidian was acquired in Ethiopia. Contacts to the south are better  confirmed:  found  in  Upper  Egypt  was  pottery  characteristic  of  Nubian Group A (made of silt, with a large number of admixtures,  and  decorated  with  ornaments  filled  with  white).  Many  Gerzean  period products were also found in Nubia.

Recent Pages:


·        Piya (744–714 BC)
·        Plutarch (c.46-120 CE)
·        Poultry in ancient Egypt
·        El Oman
·        Moerian
·        Tasa-Badari
·        Naqada I

Naqada I

Bone figure with lapis
lazuli inlays,
Naqada I. British
Museum

The existence of a Lower Egyptian kingdom at this period is not probable, but head coverings similar to the Red Crown of Lower Egypt were worn by some figures in rock engravings and paintings (from both the Eastern and Western Deserts); they may be local chiefs. From this period come the first attempts at Egyptian faience and there was  some  slight  increase in copper objects—pins, needles, beads, bracelets, awls, and rings. Models made from cheap materials were deposited in graves (mace heads, knives,  boats). Trade intensified  in  all directions but objects  characteristic of Naqada I have been found mostly to the south in Nubia, very rarely to the northern region of the Delta and Sinai. The increase in trade was accompanied by social stratification, still progressing slowly, and the development of local elites.

Recent Pages:


·        Piya (744–714 BC)
·        Plutarch (c.46-120 CE)
·        Poultry in ancient Egypt
·        El Oman
·        Moerian
·        Tasa-Badari

Tasa-Badari

Ruins from Tasa-Badari

Discovered  by G.  Brunton, the  paucity of data made it impossible to determine whether Tasa was a  separate  culture, a preliminary phase, or a mutation of the Badarian culture (c.4300-3700 BCE).  Its  originality  was  manifested  in  the simple  pottery  (deep  bowls  and  pots)  of  brown  and  grey-black;  black  or  brownish-black polished beakers, decorated with incised lines filled  with  a  white  paste,  constitute  a  special  group. Tasa  may  have  occupied part of central and southern Egypt to the Armant (Erment) region,  whereas the Badari essentially occupied the northern part of Upper Egypt  (Matmar-Qau);  some  sites  in  the  South, in  the  Wadi  Hammamat,  and  on  the  Red  Sea coast  may  indicate  that  the  Badarian were relatively-mobile. The economy was based on crops  (wheat and barley), animal husbandry (goats, cattle, and sheep), and  hunting.  In  Hemmamiya  are  found  pear-shaped  grain  silos  (3  meters/10  feet  deep),  lined  with  mats  or  baskets,  and  nearby  are  'huts, fireplaces, and animal enclosures. The best-known artifactual  inventory  comes  from  the  graves,of  the  extramural  cemeteries,  where,  besides  pottery,  hollow-based  arrowheads  were  found,  as  well  as  saw-edged  sickle  blades,  stone  axes,  bone  needles,  pins,  awls, and combs; ivory bracelets, beads, rings, vessels, spoons, and  combs; cosmetic palettes, shell and stone beads, ear and nose studs, amulets, and clay boat models.

Copper was rare but  the  presence  of  turquoise  and  seashells  indicates  trade  contacts  along  the  Red  Sea  coast.  The  origin  of  the  Badarian  culture  is  unknown,  but  some  features  can  be  traced  to  Palestine  (ceramic  decoration  called  "rippling,"  crop  cultivation,  animal  husbandry),  the Western Desert oases (flint-tool techniques, animal husbandry),  and Nubia (pottery decorations, animal husbandry). The Badarians  seem to have combined various local traditions in forming the first  stage of Upper Egyptian culture.

Recent Pages:


·        Tell el-Maskhuta (Pithom)
·        Second Intermediate Period
·        Piya (744–714 BC)
·        Plutarch (c.46-120 CE)
·        Poultry in ancient Egypt
·        El Oman
·        Moerian

Moerian

Grain from (Moerian culture)
Merimde Period

Distinguished by B. Ginter and J. K. Kozlow-ski, the Moerian culture  was  a  later  phase  of the Neolithic in the Faiyum (El-Faiyum) (c.4400-3800 BCE). It is characterized by a flint industry on blades  and  bladelets  that  were  struck  from  small  concretions,  affiliated with  the  Epi-Paleolithic  technological  tradition  of  the Western Desert. Two-thirds of the tools are backed blades, micro-retouched  blades  and  bladelets,  retouched  blades,  and  perforators.  Pottery,  tempered  with  organic  material  and  sand,  includes  hemispherical  bowls,  S-profile  vessels,  and  pots  with  cylindrical  necks.  The  Moerian  economy  was  based  on  animal  husbandry,  hunting,  and  fishing.

Bibliography and References:

• Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Volume 65. Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 1935. p. 27. Retrieved 17 June 2016.
• Forde-Johnston, James L, Neolithic cultures of North Africa: aspects of one phase in the development of the African stone age cultures. University of California, (1959), p. 58. Retrieved 16 June 2016.
• Hoffman (Michael A.): Egypt before the pharaohs. Taylor & Francis. (1980), p. 168.
• Bassey Andah, Alex Okpoko, Thurstan Shaw, Paul Sinclair: The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns, Routledge USA (1993), pp. 211-214.
• Shaw, Thurstan, The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns. Routledge, (1995), p. 212.
• Bogucki, Peter I, The origins of human society. Wiley-Blackwell, (1999), p. 355.
• Bard, Kathryn; Steven Blake Shubert, Encyclopedia of the archaeology of ancient Egypt. Routledge, (1999), p. 501.
• Eiwanger, Josef, "Merimde Beni-salame". In Bard, Kathryn A. Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. London/New York, (1999), pp. 501-505.
• Brewer, Douglas J.; Emily Teeter, Egypt and the Egyptians. Cambridge University Press, (2007), p. 35.
• "picture of the Merimde head". Auswaertiges-amt.de. Archived from the original on 2 March 2012. Retrieved 1 May 2012.

Recent Pages:


·        Tell el-Maskhuta (Pithom)
·        Second Intermediate Period
·        Piya (744–714 BC)
·        Plutarch (c.46-120 CE)
·        Poultry in ancient Egypt
·        El Oman